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托福TPO1阅读真题原文Part3
Timberline Vegetation on Mountains
The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture.
The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas.
At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils.
There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months.
Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas. At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts.
The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent.
Paragraph 1: The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often adramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture.
托福TPO1阅读真题题目Part3
1. The word "dramatic" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○gradual
○complex
○visible
○striking
2. Where is the lower timberline mentioned in paragraph 1 likely to be found?
○In an area that has little water
○In an area that has little sunlight
○Above a transition area
○On a mountain that has on upper timberline.
3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about both the upper and lower timberlines?
○Both are treeless zones.
○Both mark forest boundaries.
○Both are surrounded by desert areas.
○Both suffer from a lack of moisture.
Paragraph 2: The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas.
4. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following statements about deciduous trees?
○They cannot grow in cold climates.
○They do not exist at the upper timberline.
○They are less likely than evergreens to survive at the upper timberline.
○They do not require as much moisture as evergreens do.
Paragraph 3: At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils.
5. The word "attain" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○require
○resist
○achieve
○endure
6. The word "they" in the passage refers to
○valleys
○trees
○heights
○ridges
7. The word "prone" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○adapted
○likely
○difficult
○resistant
8. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of trees in the middle and upper latitudes?
○Tree growth is negatively affected by the snow cover in valleys
○Tree growth is greater in valleys than on ridges.
○Tree growth on ridges is not affected by high-velocity winds.
○Tree growth lasts longer in those latitudes than it does in the tropics.
Paragraph 4：There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months.
9. Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? In correct choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes.
○As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increase, leading to a serious decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes.
○The deformed shapes of trees at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which increase with altitude, can cause serious hardship for trees.
○Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this may cause serious stress for trees.
10. In paragraph 4, what is the author's main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline?
○To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it.
○To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations
○To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified
○To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon
Paragraph 6: The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is lessprevalent.
11. The word "prevalent" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○predictable
○widespread
○successful
○developed
12. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements are true of plants in the alpine zone EXCEPT:
○Because they are low, they are less exposed to strong winds.
○Because they are low, the winter snow cover gives them more protection from the extreme cold.
○In the equatorial mountains, they tend to be lower than in mountains elsewhere.
○Their low growth form keeps them closer to the ground, where there is more heat than further up.
Paragraph 5: Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. █Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. █Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas. █At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts. █
13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
This explains how, for example, alpine cushion plants have been found growing at an altitude of 6,180 meters.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
At the timberline, whether upper or lower, there is a profound change in the growth of trees and other plants.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○Birch is one of the few species of tree that can survive in the extreme environments of the upper timberline.
○There is no agreement among scientists as to exactly why plant growth is sharply different above and below the upper timberline.
○The temperature at the upper timberline is probably more important in preventing tree growth than factors such as the amount of snowfall or the force of winds.
○The geographical location of an upper timberline has an impact on both the types of trees found there and their physical characteristics.
○High levels of ultraviolet light most likely play a greater role in determining tree growth at the upper timberline than do grazing animals such as the ibex.
○Despite being adjacent to the timberline, the alpine tundra is an area where certain kinds of low trees can endure high winds and very low temperatures
托福TPO1阅读真题答案Part3
答案：
1. ○4
2. ○1
3. ○2
4. ○3
5. ○3
6. ○2
7. ○2
8. ○1
9. ○3
10. ○4
11. ○2
12. ○3
13. ○4
14. There is no agreement among…
Despite being adjacent …
The geographical location of…
托福TPO1阅读真题Part3原文翻译
山上树带界线的植被
通常从山坡上的森林到没有树的苔原是一种非常戏剧化的转变。在一个垂直距离只有几十米的地方，树木这种生命形式就消失了，取而代之的是低矮的灌木、草本植物和牧草。这种快速过渡的区域被称为上行树带界线或林木线。在许多干旱的地区存在着下行树带界线，在这里由于缺乏水分森林变成干草原，甚至在最下端会出现沙漠。
上行树带界线，和雪线一样，在热带最高，在极地最低。从极地地区的海平面到干燥的亚热带地区的海拔4 500米处以及潮湿的热带地区海拔3 500米至4 500米处都有上行树带界线。树带界线内通常是常绿树，它们和处于上行树带界线处极端恶劣环境中生长的落叶树木相比，具有一定的优势。然而，在部分地区也有由落叶阔叶林组成的树带界线。例如，在喜马拉雅的部分地区，桦树就在树带界线上。
上行树带界线的树木开始扭曲和变形，尤其在中高纬度地区的树木，这些地区的树木往往会在山脊上长得更高，而在热带地区的树木则在山谷里长得更高;因为中高纬度地区树带界线受积雪覆盖时间和深度的影响很大。由于山谷中积雪覆盖较厚且持续时间很长，树木即便是生长在大风和贫瘠的土地里，也往往会在山脊上长得更高。在热带地区山谷里更有利于生长，因为山谷不易干涸、很少结霜，并且有更深的土壤。
目前还没有一个普遍认同的解释来说明为什么会在树带界线上出现树木停止生长这种戏剧化的现象。多种环境因素都起到作用，例如，积雪过多会让树木透不过气，雪崩和雪移能摧毁树木;长时间积雪缩短了有效生长季节的时间，树苗无法生长;另外，风速会随着海拔的升高而增加，增加树木承受的压力，很明显，正是这种风速带来的压力导致树木在高纬度地区发生变形。一些科学家提出，随着海拔的上升而不断增强的紫外线、野生山羊等动物的放养，都是导致树带界线形成的因素。或许最重要的环境因素是温度，因为如果生长季节太短并且气温太低，树芽和树苗都无法充分地成长而存活过冬季。
在林木线之上有一个称为高山苔原的地带。由于紧挨着树带界线，苔原上都是矮灌木、草本植物和牧草。随着海拔的增加，物种的数量和多样性会逐渐减少，直到出现大量空地伴着零星的苔藓和地衣这样的伏地垫状植物。有些植物甚至可以在雪线以上有利的微环境中生存，世界上海拔最高的植物是出现在喜马拉雅山上6 100百米的马卡鲁峰。在这个高度上，被阳光温暖过的岩石可以将 小雪 堆融化。
高山植物最突出的特点是其低矮的生长形态。这种特点使他们能够避开大风最强势的势头，并且有助于他们利用紧邻地 面相 对较高的温度。在这样一个低温限制生命的地区，地表提供的额外温度是至关重要的。低矮的生长形态也可以帮助植物充分利用冬季积雪所提供的保温环境。在赤道区的山脉上低矮的生长形态并不常见。
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TPO模考工具是我没复习托福非常好的帮手，属于我们一定要好好利用，下面我给大家带来托福阅读真题:TPO11原文及答案，欢迎阅读参考！
托福阅读真题:TPO11原文
Ancient Egyptian Sculpture
In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art.
The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.
Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality.
Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.
Paragraph 1: In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art.
托福阅读真题:TPO11题目
1. The word “vital” in the passage is closest in meaning to
attractive
essential
usual
practical
2. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks
a realistic sense of human body proportion
a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes
the originality of European art
the capacity to show the human body in motion
3. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of
the reasons why the art was made
the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs
the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art
how the art was used
Paragraph 2: The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context.
4. According to paragraph 2, why are Egyptian statues portrayed frontality?
To create a psychological effect of distance and isolation
To allow them to fulfill their important role in ceremonies of Egyptian life
To provide a contrast to statues with a decorative function
To suggest the rigid, unchanging Egyptian philosophical attitudes
5. The word “context” in the passage is closest in meaning to
connection
influence
environment
requirement
6. The author mentions “an architectural setting” in the passage in order to
suggest that architecture was as important as sculpture to Egyptian artists
offer a further explanation for the frontal pose of Egyptian statues
explain how the display of statues replaced other forms of architectural decoration
illustrate the religious function of Egyptian statues
7. The word “they” in the passage refers to
statues
gateways
temples
pillared courts
Paragraph 3: Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality.
8. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved?
To prevent damage by providing physical stability
To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself
To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being
To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving
9. The word “core” in the passage is closest in meaning to
material
layer
center
frame
10. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements about wooden statues is true?
Wooden statues were usually larger than stone statues.
Wooden statues were made from a single piece of wood.
Wooden statues contained pieces of metal or stone attached to the front.
Wooden statues had a different effect on the viewer than stone statues.
Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.
11. The word depicts in the passage is closest in meaning to
imagines
classifies
elevates
portrays
12. According to paragraph 4, what is the difference between statues that represent the Egyptian elite and statues that represent the nonelite classes?
Statues of the elite are included in tombs, but statues of the nonelite are not.
Statues of the elite are in motionless poses, while statues of the nonelite are in active poses.
Statues of the elite are shown standing, while statues of the nonelite are shown sitting or kneeling.
Statues of the elite serve an important function, while statues of the nonelite are decorative.
Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks.
13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
In fact, it is the action and not the figure itself that is important.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The distinctive look of ancient Egyptian sculpture was determined largely by its function.
Answer Choices
The twisted forms of Egyptian statues indicate their importance in ritual actions.
The reason Egyptian statues are motionless is linked to their central role in cultural rituals.
Stone, wood, and metal statues all display the feature of frontality.
Statues were more often designed to be viewed in isolation rather than placed within buildings.
The contrasting poses used in statues of elite and nonelite Egyptians reveal their difference in social status.
Although the appearances of formal and generic statues differ, they share the same function.
托福阅读真题:TPO11答案
1. 2
2. 4
3. 3
4. 2
5. 3
6. 2
7. 1
8.1
9. 3
10. 4
11. 4
12. 2
13. 4
14. The reason Egyptian
Stone, wood, and
The contrasting poses
托福阅读真题:TPO11原文及答案相关 文章 ：
★ 11.26托福考试解析之一:独立口语和写作
托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面我给大家整理了托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3，望喜欢！
托福TPO3阅读真题原文Part3
The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems
Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.
The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.
Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.
Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term "succession" to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes-in plant numbers and the mix of species-are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
托福TPO3阅读真题题目Part3
1. The word "particular" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○natural
○final
○specific
○complex
2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?
○They occur at the end of a succession.
○They last longer than any other type of community.
○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.
○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.
Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?
○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.
○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.
○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.
○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem's properties.
Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.
4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?
○Pioneer communities
○Climax communities
○Single-crop farmlands
○Successional plant communities
Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?
○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.
○Ecologists often confuse the word "stability" with the word "resilience."
○The exact meaning of the word "stability" is debated by ecologists.
○There are many different answers to ecological questions.
6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.
○They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.
○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.
○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.
Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability-just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.
7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?
○They become less stable as they mature.
○They support many species when they reach climax.
○They are found in temperate zones.
○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.
8. The word "guarantee" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○increase
○ensure
○favor
○complicate
9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that "A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle"?
○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example
○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations
○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity
○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems
Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.
10. The word "pales" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○increases proportionally
○differs
○loses significance
○is common
Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness" of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacentcommunity. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.
○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.
○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.
○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.
12.The word "adjacent" in the passage is closest in meaning to
○foreign
○stable
○fluid
○neighboring
Paragraph 6: █Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. █The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. █We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. █
13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.
14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.
○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.
○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.
○Disagreements over the meaning of the term "stability" make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.
○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans
托福TPO3阅读真题答案Part3
参考答案：
1. ○3
2. ○3
3. ○1
4. ○2
5. ○3
6. ○2
7. ○3
8. ○2
9. ○1
10. ○3
11. ○4
12. ○4
13. ○2
14. A high degree of species diversity
The level of resilience in
Disagreements over the
托福TPO3阅读翻译Part3
参考翻译：生态系统的长期稳定
植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。生态学家使用"演替"来诠释植物群落和生态系统随着时间推移所发生的变化。演替中的第一个群落被称作先锋群落，而处于演替最后那个长期生存的群落被称为顶极群落。先锋群落和紧接着的植物群落的变化周期是从1到500年不等，植物数量和混合种类数量的变化是慢慢积累的。顶极群落本身也改变，但其变化周期超过500年。
现代一个研究池塘的生态学会发现池塘在一年当中相对而言是不变的。个别鱼类可能被替换，但年复一年鱼的总数都趋于一致。也就是说，一个生态系统自身的属性要比由单一生物体组成的生态系统更稳定。
生态学家们一度认为物种的多样性使生态系统稳定，生态系统物种越多样则生态系统越稳定。通过观察得出的结论支持了这个观点，长期持久的顶极群落通常要比先锋群落具备更为复杂的食物网和更多的物种。生态学家家们得出的结论是：顶点生态系统的稳定性明显取决于他们的复杂化程度。举个极端的例子，在单一作物的农田中，一年的恶劣天气或单一害虫的入侵就可以摧毁所有作物。与此相反，在一个复杂的顶极群落里，如温带森林，他们便可以抵御来自气候和害虫的干扰和入侵。
不管怎样，生态系统稳定性的问题非常复杂。首先，不是所有的生态学家都赞同"稳定"的含义。稳定性可以简单地定义为缺乏变化。如果是这样的话，顶极群落将被视为最稳定的，因为根据定义，他们随着时间推移而变化得最少。另外，稳定性也可以界定为生态系统在经历了严重破坏之后回复原貌的速度，比如火灾。这种稳定性也被称作弹性。在这种情况下，顶极群落将是最脆弱和最不稳定的，因为他们可能需要数百年时间才能恢复到顶点状态。
即使是这种被定义为简单地缺乏变化的稳定性并非总是与最多样的物种联系起来。至少在温带地区，会经常在演替过程中发现最多物种，而不是在顶极群落中。例如，红杉树林一旦成熟，其中的物种数量以及单个物种的数量都会减少。一般来说，多样性本身并不能保证稳定性(事实上正相反)，生态系统的数学模型也可以得出同样的结论。一个更复杂的系统可能比一个简单的系统更容易被破坏(一个十五速的 赛车 比一个孩子的三轮车更容易损坏)。
生态学家们更想弄清楚到底哪些因素有助于促成群落的恢复，因为世界各地的顶极群落都因为人类活动而遭受到严重的损坏或毁坏。就像美国西北部圣海伦火山的猛烈喷发所造成的破坏，在人类活动对环境造成的破坏面前也相形见绌。我们必须了解对群落抵抗、破坏和恢复来说哪些是最重要的。
现在的很多生态学家们认为，顶极群落相对长期的稳定性并非来自于多样性，而是来自环境的"补缀"，随处变化的环境比始终如一的环境更有利于多种有机体的生存。当地物种灭亡后，马上就会被相邻群落的移民取代。即便是另一种不同的物种，他们也可以填补那些已灭绝生物的空缺，并保持食物网的完整。
托福TPO3阅读真题原文及答案翻译Part3相关 文章 ：
1. 新托福阅读考试需要多长时间
2021年1月31日托福的考试目前已经结束。在这一次的考试里是写作部分有比较大的难度。那么它各部分的题目是怎样的？来看看一月这最后一次托福考试的题目吧。
一、2021年1月31日托福写作真题
独立写作
人们是不是越来越obssessed with material things due to the judgment of others on their possessions
综合写作
如何解决stink bug problems
二、2021年1月31日托福口语真题
T1
机器能不能取代人？
T2
学校要让大三大四学生投稿学校（的宣传）视频
T3
sweeping generalization
T4
植物在高山的生存条件
三、2021年1月31日托福听力真题
C1
well-made play和玩偶之家
C2
环科人问教职员工如何让community参与到学校组织的环保活动
L1
rosetta和67p（检测器和一个流星）
L2
测试城市化对bird singing的影响
L3
讨论一个石器和猛犸象化石的关系
四、2021年1月31日托福阅读真题
R1
英国经济兴起
R2
美国电影发展
R3
有种鱼不同性别体型差异
R4
兰花
五、中学生备考托福需要经历三个阶段
一般来说，中国的中学生准备托福考试需要经历下述三个阶段：
A）提高基础能力的阶段；
B）能力和应试并举阶段；
C）集中应试阶段；
关于阶段A，道理已经很明白：本来准备给大学生的考试，绝大部分中学生在英语能力上，无论是词汇量，阅读量，知识面等各方面，都是远远不够的，必须要首先提高英语的基础能力。这个英语基础能力，构成了学生进行跳跃（应试）的平台高度。平台高度太低，无论学生如何跳跃，都跳不过托福这跟横杆。
关于阶段B，我们发现，不必等到学生的平台高度达到托福横杆。在稍早的时候，让学生开始接触一下托福，有利于学生建立目标感，有助于学生进行更有针对性的阅读。并且随着阅读的继续进行，学生的平台高度越来越高，学生在这个阶段中会感觉到托福的难度越来越低了。这样基于成就感的正向激励，对于学生坚持阅读非常有好处，因此也有助于把基础能力平台推向新高度。
关于阶段C，这个阶段就是一个密集的应试训练。我们发现，绝大部分学生因为基础能力这个平台高度不够，最终还是要靠密集的应试培训来补缺。国内绝大多数的托福培训都专注于这个阶段。无论是写作套路，核心词表，解题技巧，还是考试机经（考题预测），都属于此类。这个阶段的目标很简单：就是在不提高平台高度的前提下，通过奋力一跃，跳过更高的横杆高度。
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